Bennet Burleigh (1840-1914)

Bennet Burleigh

BURLEIGH IS the Syrtis Major correspondent for the Daily Telegraph, a leading London daily, posted to Mars just as his paper once posted him wherever the Empire went to war. Scottish-born, he fled to America as a young man, fought for the Confederacy, was captured, escaped, and rode with a raiding party against Union shipping on the Great Lakes before the law finally caught up with him and sent him home in disgrace. He remade himself as a journalist and spent the better part of a decade following British arms through Egypt and the Sudan. He watched the campaign of '82 unfold from the canal works outside Ismailia, and three years later he was attached to the Desert Column on the Nile when Burnaby flew Gordon out of a besieged Khartoum by aerial launch, an escape that saved one man's life but neither the city's nor the column's. He does not consider himself a sentimental man, but he has watched enough relief efforts arrive after the fact to recognize the shape of the problem before anyone else in the room does.

Burleigh files fast, files first, and is not above petty sabotage to keep a rival correspondent's dispatch off the wire behind his own. He has no patience for Colonial Office caution and even less for a good story spoiled by a cautious editor, but he is scrupulously accurate about facts he can verify himself, having learned the hard way that a correspondent's whole worth is his word.

Reporter (Veteran NPC)
Att.		Skills
Str:	3	Fisticuffs: 2, Throwing: 1, Close Combat 2 (edged weapons)
Agl:	3	Stealth: 2, Marksmanship: 2 (pistol)
End:	5	Wilderness Travel: 4 (desert), Fieldcraft 3, Tracking 1
Int:	5	Observation: 5, Science: 1 (geography)
Chr:	4	Eloquence: 5, Linguistics 3 (Arabic, French, Spanish), Theatrics 3, Bargaining 3
Soc:	3	Riding: 3 (horse), Piloting: 1 (aerial flyers)
Motives: Ambitious, Adventuresome, Ruthless
The correspondent on a battlefield. Appearance: Burleigh is a stocky, weathered man in his late forties, thick through the shoulders from decades of campaign living, with a heavy mustache gone mostly grey and a Glasgow burr that thickens when he is angry or excited. His hands are permanently ink-stained, and he carries a battered dispatch case everywhere, along with a revolver he has owned since his American days and has no intention of surrendering to peacetime habits. His campaign clothes are practical rather than fashionable, patched more than once, and he shows no self-consciousness about it in company that would notice. He has a habit of watching a room's exits before he watches the people in it, a leftover instinct from a young manhood spent one step ahead of Federal patrols. When he smells a story, he becomes suddenly, disarmingly charming, a quality that has gotten him into headquarters tents closed to every other correspondent on three worlds. Background: Prior careers include soldier of fortune and journalist. Bennet Burleigh is 49 years old and is from the middle class

Heros von Borcke (1835–1895)

Heros von Borcke, in Germany, after the American Civil War.

Johann August Heinrich Heros von Borcke is known as the "giant in gray." Born to an aristocratic German family, he spent his childhood in Berlin and Halle before receiving a Prussian military education. Von Borcke was commissioned an ensign in 1853 and admitted to the Cuirassier Regiment of Guards as a cadet. He was then posted as second lieutenant to the Second Brandenburg Regiment of Dragoons in 1860. After obtaining a leave from the Prussian Army, he embarked upon the adventure of his life; sailing for Bermuda, intent on joining the Confederate Army during the American Civil War.

Speaking almost no English, von Borcke managed to secure letters of introduction to Confederate authorities, and slipped into South Carolina's Charleston Harbor via a blockade runner on May 24, 1862. He next traveled to Richmond, where he met with Confederate Secretary of War George Randolph, who presented him with a letter of introduction to Major General J.E.B. Stuart.

A deep friendship developed immediately between the two men, and von Borcke was made a captain in the Provisional Army of the Confederate States and later promoted to the rank of major. Von Borcke could be entertaining and told wonderful stories with his thick accent. His horses were as big as his extra-long sword, a beast of a blade forged in Solingen of Damascus steel. He rode with Stuart, who affectionately called him "Von," during the Northern Virginia and Maryland campaigns, acquiring a reputation for bravery. He served with Stuart in the Battle of Middleburg on June 19, 1863, where he suffered a severe wound. The examining doctor somberly declared the wound, which pierced the lung, mortal -- but von Borcke woke up the next morning determined to live, and he did. Placed on limited duty for the remainder of the year, he resumed his position on Stuart's staff in the spring of 1864. Heros was present at the Battle of Yellow Tavern, where J.E.B. Stuart was mortally wounded, and von Borcke sat at Stuart's deathbed, holding his hand, and promised to see after Stuart's widow and children. Von Borcke was promoted to lieutenant colonel in December of 1864, was voted the official thanks of the Confederate Congress, and sent on a diplomatic mission to England by President Jefferson Davis.

While in London, he wrote articles for the pro-Confederate Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. The articles were later collected and published in book form as Memoirs of the Confederate War for Independence. When the Confederacy collapsed in 1865, von Borcke returned to his native Prussia and resumed his military career. He fought in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, receiving the coveted Order of the Red Eagle for his gallantry, but his old wounds continued to plague him, so he retired from the Prussian Army as Captain in 1867.

Von Borcke had three sons with his first wife, Magdalene Honig. When Magdalene passed away in 1883, he married her sister, and they had a daughter named Karoline Virginia -- named in honor of his adopted, and beloved, southern state back in America.

Even after the war, von Borcke's maintained a deep affection and respect for the Confederacy. So much so that unsuspecting visitors to East Prussia are often surprised to see the Confederate flag flying (next to the Prussian flag) from the battlements of von Borcke's ancestral estate in Geisenbrugge, Pomerania. In 1884, he returned to the United States for a reunion with many former friends and comrades, and presented his famous Damascus sword to them. The sword was later given to the State of Virginia.

Von Borcke is an aristocrat of some means, with a bent for adventure, meaning he could be encountered nearly anywhere in the solar system -- wherever the German flag is flown. However, his poor health (the result of his Civil War wound) makes Mars' dry climate and lower gravity an attractive option. His sympathy for the Confederate cause means that he may also be encountered wherever a Confederate expatriate community exists.

Army (Veteran NPC)			Lieutenant-Colonel Heros von Borcke
Att.		Skills
Str:	4	Fisticuffs: 4, Throwing: 2, Close Combat: 4 (sword)
Agl:	3	Stealth: 2, Marksmanship: 2 (pistol)
End:	2	Wilderness Travel: 3
Int:	2	Observation: 1
Chr:	5	Eloquence: 5, Language: 1 (English)
Soc:	5	Riding: 5 (horse), Leadership: 2
Motives: Adventuresome, Arrogant, Eccentric
Appearance: With curly blond hair, laughing eyes, and an engaging personality, von Borcke has an imposing presence. By nineteenth-century standards, he is larger than life, standing six feet four inches in height and weighing in at well over two hundred forty pounds. His stature, personality, and social status make him popular among his peers. However, he can also be a bit vain and difficult to get along with at times, especially for his servants. Although he recovered from the wounds suffered in 1863, neither von Borcke's physical strength nor his endurance fully recovered (having been Str: 6, End: 4 as a young man).

French Ironclad Colbert

The central battery ironclad Colbert is one of the ten ships of the French navy that constitute the group ranking next in importance to the squadron of great turret ships, of which the Formidable is the largest. The group consists of six types, as follows:

274mm cannon in the armoured section of a Colbert class
ironclad, by Gustave Bourgain, circa 1885. 

1. The Ocean type; three vessels; the Marengo, Ocean, and Suffren.
2. The Friedland type, of which no others are built.
3. The Richelieu type, of which no others are built.
4. The Colbert type, of which there are two; the Colbert and the Trident.
5. The Redoubtable type, of which no others are built.
6. The Devastation type, of which no others are built.

Laid down in 1870, the Colbert was launched at Brest in 1875, and her sister ship, the Trident, in 1876. Both are of iron and wood, and the following are the principal dimensions of the Colbert, which apply very closely to the Trident: She is 321 ft. 6 in. long, 59 ft. 6 in. beam, and 29 ft. 6 in. draught aft. Her displacement is 8,457 tons, her indicated horse power is 4,652, and her speed 14.4 knots. She has coal carrying capacity for 700 tons, and her crew numbers 706. The thickness of her armor belt is 8.66 in., that protecting the central battery is 6.29 in. thick, which is also the thickness of the transverse armored bulkheads, while the deck is 0.43 in. in thickness.

the French ironclad war ship Colbert.

The Colbert-class was designed by Constructor Sabattier as an improved version of the ironclad Richelieu and they were the last ships authorized in the 1857 Naval Program. The class reverted to a single propeller shaft to improve sailing qualities and to lessen the chance of the propellers being fouled by fallen rigging. As central battery ironclads, their armament is concentrated amidships and consists of eight old 11 in. guns, two 9 in., six 6 in., four deck mounted torpedo tubes, and fourteen revolving and machine guns. Like most ironclads of their era, they are also equipped with a plough-shaped ram.

While the exact reason for such a prolonged construction time is not known, it is believed that reduction of the French Navy's budget after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 and out-of-date work practices in French dockyards were likely causes.—Engineering.

Technical Specifications:

Class	Year	MS	Ram	Spd	Hs	Blt	Bty	Blk	Trt	Deck	Armament
CBI	1877	35	Y	2	6	3	3	2	—	—	Bow: 1o9, A: 1o9, FS: 1o11, BS: [3o11], 3o6; DT-4, 14QF

click image for a PDF copy of the ship chart.

Influence of Air-Ships on War

The art of war keeps constant pace with the sciences, taking advantage of all discoveries and inventions, which may be found of use. Money without limit is spent to obtain the most efficient results in steam and electrical engineering, in chemistry, optics and metallurgy. The demands which modern war makes upon science are usually more imperative than those made for civil and commercial purposes. It may be readily understood, then, that, should a successful air-ship be constructed, it would find immediate occupation in the armies of the different nations who are rivaling each other in warlike preparations.

But is the success of the air-ship probable? Eminent engineers and scientists have for some time conceded that many of the important obstacles in the way of artificial flight have been removed, and it now seems probable that within a few years all problems connected with it will be solved, and a machine capable of sustained flight and entirely under control will be an actual fact.

Langley's Aerodrome

The many failures of attempts at flight have made people skeptical in regard to success, and the ridicule commonly accorded experimenters has doubtless deterred many scientific investigators and withheld the capital necessary to make experiments, but within the last decade exhaustive experiments in regard to the sustaining and resisting power of the air have been made by several scientists, notably by Mr. Hiram Maxim and Mr. S. P. Langley. It is now known what weight the air will sustain, what power is necessary to support a definite weight, and other facts, which before were only guessed at. Experiments have also been made to determine the best material and the best form for the sustaining planes and the propellers.

To secure a satisfactory motor has long been regarded as the most difficult problem to be solved in obtaining flight, and until within a few years no motor had been constructed capable of sustaining, in addition to its own weight, that of the aeroplane or other means of support, the supply of fuel and the engineer, etc., but within that time, improvements in the quality of metals, and especially the advances made in steam engineering, have made such an achievement possible.

The power necessary to sustain a man in the air has been variously estimated by several experimenters. Mr. S. P. Langley, in his experiments with planes on a whirling table, found that one horse-power, rightly applied, would support over 200 pounds in the air at velocities over forty-five miles per hour. Mr. Maxim found, in a similar series of experiments, that with a plane moved at an angle of one on fourteen, one horse-power would support 133 pounds. Mr. 0. Chanute, in "The Progress of Flying Machines," states that as a general conclusion it may be said that, including the resistance of the machinery and framing, 100 pounds per horse-power is about the maximum that can be lifted, and he estimates that, in small aeroplanes capable of lifting one man, fifty pounds per horse-power is the greatest amount that can be allowed for the weight of the motor.

Motors have been constructed which will more than fulfill these demands. Mr. Langley has made a steam engine which, without the boiler, weighed only six pounds per horse-power. Mr. Hargrave, of Australia, has constructed a small engine which weighs only 10.7 pounds per horse-power. Mr. Maxim's engines of 300 horse-power weigh, with boiler and condensers complete, only eight pounds per horse-power, while the engines alone weigh only two pounds per horse-power. He considers it practicable to build an engine, boiler, condenser, etc., complete, which will weigh only five pounds per horse-power. Mr. Mosher, who built the steam yacht " Norwood," has stated that he can supply engines for experimental flying machines of less than ten pounds per horse-power.

The question of a suitable motor being disposed of, the most important difficulties remaining are successful alighting after flight and a satisfactory method of retaining equilibrium during flight. It is not probable that these will long remain obstacles in the path of the many investigators now interested in the work.

During the last twenty-fire years the French have been interested in the dirigible balloon, and have had partial success with it. The "La Prance," which attained the greatest success, was cigar-shaped, 165 feet long, and, with a nine-horse-power electric motor, attained a speed of fourteen miles per hour. A larger one is now projected that will make twenty-five miles per hour. While the dirigible balloon would be very useful, in the absence of anything better, the most experienced investigators claim that the aeroplane presents greater prospects of complete success. Many inventors are now experimenting with different forms of supporting and propelling machines. One of the most interesting is that of Mr. Otto Lilienthal, of Berlin, who, with a pair of bat-like wings twenty-six feet from tip to tip, has succeeded in flying 400 yards down the slope of a hill. In a recent model he uses a small motor, driven by compressed carbonic acid gas, to assist him in moving his Wings.

Mr. Phillips, of England, has constructed a flying machine weighing 330 pounds, which has a record of having flown 2,000 feet at the rate of forty miles per hour. While this machine was not absolutely free from the ground, it demonstrated its ability to raise more than its weight. The peculiar feature of it is the aeroplane, which resembles a Venetian blind eight feet high and twenty-two feet wide.

Mr. Maxim's aeroplane, which is one of the few air ships that have ever succeeded in getting beyond the model stage, and the only one of its size that has shown itself capable of rising from the ground, offers great promise. It has 5,400 square feet of aeroplane. Its extreme length is 125 feet; width, 104 feet; weight, 8,000 pounds, and its lifting power at a velocity of about fifty miles per hour is 10,000 pounds. Its record of actual free flight is over 500 feet. Mr. Maxim says that after having been so successful in constructing this machine, "it only remains to continue the experiments with a view of learning the art of manoeuvring it."

Since the perfecting of the air-ship in the near future seems so probable, it is certainly not out of place to speculate as to what would be its effect on warfare, since it would probably first be used for that purpose. The advantages to be gained by their use in war are so evident and so important that when once perfected they will form just as necessary a part of the defenses of a nation as is now furnished by a navy.

Air-ships may be used in war for observation of the enemy, for reconnaissance, for carrying dispatches, and for offensive attack.

Zeppelin's LZ-1 makes its first ascent.

Balloons, usually captive, have often been used for observation of the enemy, and they now form part of the equipment of almost .all nations. An air-ship, completely under control, would be an ideal means of observation and reconnaissance. It could penetrate far into the enemy's country, and return promptly with intelligence. The most minute information of an enemy's numbers, disposition and movements could be obtained, which from its accuracy would be of incalculable importance to the commander of an army.

The general in command of an army could, from a position on an air-ship, make better disposition of his forces and, having better knowledge of how a battle was going, could meet emergencies more promptly.

For topographical work an air-ship would be a valuable auxiliary. By instantaneous photography of the underlying country, accurate maps could be made and multiplied for circulation.

For carrying messages the air-ship might be useful in the absence or interruption of electrical communication.

The most important field, however, for the operation of the air-ship would be its use in offensive operations. For this purpose it is eminently adapted, and will far surpass any weapon or means of offence that man has heretofore invented. An air-ship could, by rising beyond the range of the enemy's guns, or by moving rapidly in irregular or zigzag directions, prevent guns being trained and fired upon it, while its own guns would still be effective. The high angle of elevation required to fire at an air-ship would make the artillery of the present day useless, with the exception of mortars. The concentration of mortar fire might be attempted, but only a chance shot, while the air-ship was at a low altitude, could have any effect.

Air-ships will probably be armed with light rapid-fire guns for attack upon other air-ships, and with guns of low power, possibly pneumatic, for firing at objects beneath. In many cases guns could be dispensed with and projectiles of all kinds could simply be dropped. By coming up against the wind and making certain adjustments of the rudders and aeroplanes, the velocity could be diminished, possibly almost to a full stop, with-out the air-ship falling, and thus give the gunners an opportunity to do more accurate firing. A handful of bullets thrown from the height of a half-mile or so would be very destructive upon reaching the earth. Shell or shrapnel could be used with good effect. The greatest use of the air-ship, however, would be to drop torpedoes containing a high explosive. One torpedo exploded in the vicinity of a man-of-war would annihilate it. The ship would be entirely powerless to protect herself. No matter what her speed, she could not run away or conceal herself in any way, so that the destruction of an entire fleet would be a comparatively short matter. The bombardment of a city or a fort would be much more easily accomplished since the target would be larger and stationary.

An air-ship, then, hovering over the capital of a country would, unless a more powerful similar antagonist were brought against it, soon bring the government to favorable terms.

Land fortifications would be tenable only if provided with proper overhead protection for guns and men, and would be powerless against an air-ship. An army, when a hostile air-ship appeared, would be forced to adopt the most open kind of extended formation, since a closed mass would offer a good target for the aerial gunners.

The ability of an air-ship to hover over and threaten the headquarters of the commander of an army might have a vital effect upon the result of a battle.

The only method of attacking an air-ship that would offer a reasonable hope of success would be by other air-ships. The battle between them would be in some respects similar to one between naval vessels, with the additional features of much higher speed and of its not being confined to one plane. Each would endeavor to cripple the other. Their light construction would allow them to be easily damaged. The sustaining aeroplane destroyed, gravity would do the rest. Ramming would probably be impracticable. In a conflict between an aeroplane and a dirigible balloon, the latter would be at a decided disadvantage.

The possession of an air-ship, or the successful termination of a battle between air-ships, will thus quickly decide a war. We may look forward, then, to shorter wars in the future, and since the conflict of the air-ships will be the decisive factor of a battle, the relative importance of large armies and navies will be diminished. It would be absolutely necessary, therefore, that a nation engaging in war with another nation owning air-ships, should herself possess a sufficient number of them. To be without would be certain defeat, even though her antagonist were a small nation with an insignificant army and navy.

We may say, then, that the invention of a successful air-ship will cause an entire revolution in the art of war more stupendous than that caused by any invention since that of gunpowder, and even surpassing that, since it only increased the distance between the lines of the combatants, while the principles of attack and defense, strategy and supply, remained unchanged, or were only slowly modified. A flying machine, however, will nullify strategy, make vital changes in the principles of attack and defense, diminish the importance of navies and sea-coast fortifications, and by bringing the theatre of operations to the doors of palaces and legislatures, render speedy settlement of national grievances imperative.

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by Lt. John K. Cree, U.S.A., ©1896; This article originally appeared in the January 1, 1896, issue of the North American Review.

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HMS Imperieuse

WAR SHIPS OF THE BRITISH ROYAL NAVY.

RECENTLY COMMISSIONED-H.M.S. IMPERIEUSE

As an example of one of the latest additions to the Royal Navy, we give an engraving of H.M.S. Imperieuse. for which we are indebted to the Illustrated London News. The Imperieuse and her sister ship, the Warspite, were launched in 1883 & 1884, receiving their commissioning pennants in 1886 & 1888 respectively. The ships are designed as fast cruisers, carrying four heavy revolving guns in barbette towers, capable of being fired in any direction, besides six lighter guns. Each ship will be able to carry 900 tons of coal, and to steam at the rate of sixteen knots per hour. The ships are brig-rigged, with a large spread of canvas for cruising.

The dimensions of the ship are: Length, 315 feet; displacement, 7,300 tons; horse power, 8,000.—Engineering

Technical Specifications:

Class	Year	MS	Ram	Spd	Hs	Blt	Bty	Blk	Trt	Deck	Armament
AC	1886	34	N	3	6	M5	-	4	4	4	F,A,P,S: [1x9B], FS,AS: 1x6B, BS:3x6B; BT-2, ST-2, MT-1, 4QF

Click image for a PDF copy of the ship chart.

HIJMS Kotaka

TORPEDO BOAT FOR THE JAPANESE GOVERNMENT.

THE JAPANESE NAVY'S SEA-GOING TORPEDO BOAT KOTAKA.

We give a photograph of the Japanese Government's new torpedo boat, HIJMS Kotaka, lately completed by Messrs. Yarrow & Co., of Poplar, which is of more than usual interest, as she is a distinct departure from the now stereotyped form of torpedo boat. Not only is she the largest that has hitherto been built, but she embodies several new features. The principal novelty is that vulnerable parts of the the vessel, including the machinery, are all protected by one inch steel armor which may be considered as an almost perfect defense against machine-gun fire, having in view the distance at which a torpedo boat attacks and the acute angle of fire at which it would be hit. The dimensions are 166 ft. long by 19 ft. beam, and she will be propelled by twin screws driven by engines indicating 1,400 horse power, from which a speed of nineteen to twenty knots, or about 23 miles an hour, maybe reasonably expected. The vessel has already been shipped in pieces to Japan, where she was put together; and if the trials come up to the expectations formed, there is no doubt that this type of torpedo boat will find much favor with many governments. For not only is good protection obtained, but the vessel, from her large size, offers great and very comfortable accommodation for the officers and crew, and is undoubtedly deserving of being considered thoroughly sea-going. How far the advantages gained by the one inch of steel armor will counter-balance the disadvantages of reduced speed and increased cost in consequence is for naval authorities rather than for engineers and shipbuilders to determine.

The Kotaka's armament consists of two torpedo tubes placed forward for direct firing ahead, the torpedoes being ejected by gunpowder. There will also be amidships and aft, on the deck, turntables, upon each of which will be mounted two torpedo guns, placed at an acute angle with one another and arranged for firing over the side. These guns, by being nearly, but not quite, parallel with each other, if fired simultaneously, will clearly very materially increase the probability of the vessel aimed at being hit. It is a remarkable fact that the Japanese were the first to introduce sea-going torpedo boats into their navy, Messrs. Yarrow & Co. having, some eight years ago, constructed a number of such craft for the Japanese Government, under the superintendence of Sir E. J. Reed. Again they have taken the initiative, in conjunction with Messrs. Yarrow and Co., in adopting a vessel of such an entirely new type and possessing such evident advantages over their predecessors. —The Engineer.

Technical Specifications:

Class	Year	MS	Ram	Spd	Hs	Blt	Bty	Blk	Trt	Deck	Armament
TB	1888	(4)	N	3	3	-	-	-	-	-	BT-2, DT-4, 4QF

Click image to download a PDF copy of the chart.

How a Ship is Coaled

The operation of coaling is of course a matter of vital importance on board ship in these days of steam propulsion, but it is at the same time, to all concerned, one of the most trying and unpleasant of duties. That it is done cheerfully ad taken as "all in a days work"-being carried out where several ships are together in a spirit of the keenest rivalry, ship against ship as to which shall be done first and make a record--is another question. Briefly, this is what happens during coaling. The collier comes alongside, and the coal in its hold is placed in sacks by a party of bluejackets from the ship to be coaled, the sacks being then swung on board the battle-ship, where they are placed on barrows, wheeled to the coaling shoots, and emptied into the bunkers, to be finally trimmed and stowed away there in the smallest possible space. That is an outline of the process. In its details, coaling a battle-ship or cruiser involves a great many other things.

Coaling a battle-ship in harbour.

The first outward sign which shows that coaling a war-ship is, to say the least of it, a big business, is the covering up of all the breeches of the guns on board, large and small, the quick-firing guns and machine guns, with tarpaulins. After that comes the closing of all skylights and cabin ventilators, and all open spaces--except those required for the actual operation in hand--leading below from the upper deck. Practically the whole ship's company of all ranks and ratings, from quarter-deck officers to boys, take some part in coaling a ship, for which the officers turn out in their oldest and worst clothes. For the men a white coaling dress is provided out of a special allowance, known as the "C.D.B." The work begun, in a very short time the spotless upper deck and upper works of the beautiful man-of-war, whether battle-ship or cruiser, are completely transformed into a scene of grime and discomfort. The upper deck speedily becomes buried, from bow to stern, beneath a layer of coal dust, which insinuates itself everywhere and lodges itself in every nook and cranny. The bright barrels of the guns become smudged, and white paint everywhere looks grey. At the same time, down below particles of coal dust manage to find lodgment, floating in between decks and depositing themselves here, there and everywhere in thinner layers. To remain in the cabins or in the ward-room, should anyone be disposed to do so, is practically to court asphyxia, at the same time that, on the other hand, to be on deck means for everybody, from captain to cabin boy, the prompt undergoing of a transformation into the appearance of a coal heaver or of a Moore and Burgess Minstrel. It is difficult to recognize the smartest of officers in the dingy persons who are superintending the coaling parties. All in garb and face look like mourners in sack-cloth and ashes. So the work progresses, the coal coming on board in marvelous rapidity, sack after sack being whipped up over the side in endless succession, as it seems, until the last ton required has been safely received, trundled to the shoot, and stowed away and trimmed in the bunkers.

Bluejackets moving coal from the collier.

Cleaning the ship after coaling.

After that comes the cleaning up both of the men themselves and of the ship, during which latter process, fore and aft, the whole vessel becomes filled with a sound of rushing waters, the upper decks being flooded, while the scuppers run like brooks as the dust and dirt of an hour ago is swept into the sea in rushing torrents of water. The ship is washed and scrubbed throughout from end to end, the barefooted bluejackets working with such will that in a wonderfully short space of time, thanks also to the yards of hose and unlimited water at their disposal, the ship's toilet is speedily completed and the vessel herself restored to her former spotless condition. Then the cabins and skylights and ventilators are all thrown open, and fresh air and sweetness and light are let in once more.

Such is the scene at the coaling of a war-ship in the daytime. At night electric lamps fore and aft cast a brilliant light over all the scene as the work progressed being one that might well have inspired Dante, could he have seen it, to write another canto to his "Inferno." The black night, the louds of steam and coal dust, the clattering din of the winches, the crowd of dusky figures swarming everywhere as they work at top speed--the scene would make the fortune of an artist to depict.

Temperley Transporter

The operation of coaling, thanks to modern ingenuity, can nowadays be carried on as easily at sea as in harbour, by means of the Temperley transporter, and ingenious mechanical contrivance that is now fitted on board all our modern battle-ships and large cruisers. The Temperley transporter consists of a light beam attached to a derrick, along which a carriage travels, with a pulley attached, for the rope carrying the sacks of coal to pass over. By one continuous pull on board the battle ship the coal sacks are lifted clear up from the hold of the collier, conveyed directly up the side, and run on board oil to the deck of the ship taking in coal, where the men receive it and bestow it as already related. 

It is to a great extent by means of the Temperley transporter that our ships are able to coal as expeditiously as is done in the Channel and Mediterranean Fleets, where an average of over 120 tons an hour has been passed in the case of several of the larger battle-ships. The differences recorded among ships in commission in their rates of taking in coal are, in fact, the result of differences in the position of the bunkers, making it easy for some ships to coal quickly, while others cannot possibly do so.

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The text of this article originally appeared in the November 26, 1897, issue of Navy and Army Illustrated (with a "hat tip" to Steven Gray's Blog for the reference).

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Ætheric Signalling

COLONEL HOZIER gave a lecture to the officers of the Woolwich garrison at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich, last week, 'upon a subject which may be of very great importance to the Naval and Military services. The subject was the science of communication over considerable distances without the intervention of telegraph wires or cables.

The desire to communicate ideas to a distance has been prevalent probably since history began. In the times of the Napoleonic wars long lines of semaphores were erected between the naval ports and London to keep up communication between the fleets and the Admiralty. Signalling by flags was in vogue long before Nelson flew his famous signal at Trafalgar. Early in this century the commercial code of flag signalling was adopted for the mercantile marine, and more lately a system of signalling, technically known as "flag-wagging," is constantly utilized in all manœuvres. Towards the middle of the century the electric telegraph was developed, and now by means of a conducting wire millions of messages are flashed every day between different continents and under various oceans. In various cases it is impossible or inconvenient to use a conducting wire for this purpose. For instance, if an island be separated from the mainland by a rocky channel where a tide runs strong, it is impossible to maintain a telegraph cable, and in other cases the cost of laying a cable could not be compensated for by the amount of traffic which would be secured, and this would prevent the postal authorities establishing telegraphic communication, especially in this country, where a careful Treasury watches so jealously over the public purse-strings. In such cases it must be of great importance to establish, if possible, communication of ideas between two distant points without the cost of laying a cable. This is still more the case with regard to communication between the shore and ships. A ship, which is moving, cannot possibly be connected by cable with the mainland, hence the only means by which communication of this sort beyond the range of vision can be maintained between a ship and the shore must be by some mode of wireless telegraphy or ætheric signalling. Nor is this the only advantage of ætheric signalling if it can be carried out. Experience has shown us that by means of ætheric signalling work can be done at a distance without any conducting medium for the transmission of energy. For instance, by means of ætheric signalling, it is possible, at a distance, without any actual contact, to fire mines, to ring bells, or to light an incandescent lamp.

It is hardly necessary to point out that if we have the power of doing work at a distance, say, of 20 or 30 miles, by means of ætheric signalling, this system must be of advantage in war. If an enemy were advancing to attack a position, it might be possible to blow up a bridge even when his troops are upon it, and thus considerably hamper his advance. In the same way it might be possible to much inconvenience the enemy by blowing up buildings in which his troops were billeted. It is possible that if his divisions arrived after dark in a village, there would not be very much care taken to search the church towers and see that there was no small piece of wire running down one of them. Yet the existence of that wire, properly arranged by the defending army before it marched out of the village, might cause considerable injury to the invader. Nor need we limit our benevolent intentions towards our enemy to land. At present torpedoes and submarine mines are fired by electricity, by means of conducting wires, but in some cases it might be difficult, if not impossible, to lay the necessary cables. In these cases it is possible that the mines might be exploded and the torpedoes fired by ætheric signalling. For instance, although a cable could not be laid, it might be possible by placing the necessary apparatus on a buoy anchored out at sea beforehand, to secure the firing of a mine or torpedo, as I shall endeavor to show by a miniature experiment.

Ætheric signalling also might be useful in communicating between advance posts at a considerable distance and the main body of an army, or between the main body and the advanced posts. By touching a button in the headquarter office a bell might be rung at the advanced posts, or the same energy which could be utilized to ring a bell might by proper manipulation be also utilized for printing a message, as we shall be able to show at the conclusion of the lecture, and indeed, in some cases, a gun might be placed in position, and when an enemy approached shrouded by rifle fire, it might be possible to fire the gun by ætheric signalling without exposing the gunners to infantry bullets.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY

ætheric signal engineers

Ætheric signalling and wireless telegraphy are much confounded in popular descriptions, but there is a considerable difference between them. There are two systems of wireless telegraphy, which have proved successful. The first of these is that which has been introduced by that great electrical authority, Sir William Preece. Sir William Preece, whose name is received with respect in every scientific meeting in the world, on account of original research which has made him famous, was for many years the head of the telegraph department of the Post Office, and now is the consulting electrical engineer to the Post Office. Hence, he is the greatest living authority on telegraphy. He has devised a system of wireless telephony. The principle of this system is, that suppose it were desired to effect communication without the medium of a conducting wire between the island the mainland, it would be achieved by stretching along the island and along the mainland two parallel telegraph wires, the ends of which would be sunk either in the sea or in the earth. It has been proved by Sir William Preece that if an electrical current be set up in one of these wires, a corresponding current is induced in the other wire, and that hence the signals transmitted through the first wire are repeated in the second wire. In this case it seems that the electrical effects are transmitted not only by induction between the two wires, but by conduction through the earth in which the terminal plates of the wires are embedded. This system has been established at the island of Flatholm, in the Bristol Channel, where Lloyds' signal station is now connected by wireless telephony with the mainland, over a distance of three miles by sea. Sir William Preece has also established his system at the Skerries Islands off the coast of Anglesea, where communication is effected over two miles of sea, and the Post Office is now establishing this system on behalf of Lloyds' to connect Lloyds' signal station at Rathlin Island, on the north coast of Ireland, with the mainland, over a distance of about seven miles. The experiments which have been made, as Sir William Preece states prove conclusively that communication, both telegraphic and telephonic, has been readily maintained by these means, and that wireless telegraphy across the sea by this method is now a practical and commercial system. He also believes that it would be simple to speak by telephone between ship and shore or between shore and ship at a considerable distance by means of a circuit formed of copper wire passing over the topmasts and terminating at each end of the ship in the sea, using simply telephones.

Another system of wireless telegraphy was proposed by Charles A. Stevenson, brother of the engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board of Scotland. This system, which has been subsequently developed by Professor Oliver Lodge and other engineers, owes its origin, like that of Sir William Preece, to a physical fact discovered by the celebrated philosopher Faraday. Faraday showed that the approach or recession of a current might induce a current in a closed circuit near it. This I will endeavor to show by the apparatus before me, which is a miniature of Mr. Stevenson's coil system. For the purpose of experiment a coil of insulated wire is connected to a battery of two or three cells, with a key to turn the current on or off. A second coil entirely unconnected with the first is joined by wires to a galvanometer. We know that a coil of wire in which a current is circulating acts like a magnet. We find that if, while the current is flowing in one coil, the coil is suddenly moved up towards the other, a momentary current will be induced in the second coil. If the first coil is suddenly moved away from the second another momentary current will be observed in the second circuit. In a similar way if a circuit be made or broken, it has the same effect as suddenly moving the coils. It is evident that if sufficient force can be exerted in the coil by these means to move a galvanometer, the same force can be utilized to move a telegraph needle or any desired means of communication, This system has, I believe, been used, the coils, of course, being much larger and the batteries much stronger, by Mr. Stevenson, in Scotland, and has been fairly successful, but when it was proposed to utilize this system in connecting a lighthouse on an island lying to the north of the Shetland Isles, it was considered that it would have been necessary to place on the lighthouse rock a coil of 40 ft. in diameter and on the shore of the mainland a coil of 200 ft. in diameter. The rock coil would have required about 120 ft. of wire, and the mainland coil about 630 ft. of wire.

ÆTHERIC SIGNALLING

The objections to wireless telegraphy appear to be that the length of wire required to transmit messages across a channel is large, and hence inconvenient, and not capable of being adopted where communication must be made from a small space, such as a rock lighthouse. The lecturer prefers to trust to the system of ætheric signalling so called, because the means by which the signals are transmitted depend upon the undulation of the waves of that ether, which we know, exists everywhere throughout the universe, and which is undoubtedly the means of propagation of light and radiant heat. The application of radiant heat to the transmission of signals is more interesting as a scientific experiment than capable of practical use. For practical, useful signalling, we must probably rely on ætheric signalling properly so called.

clockwork ætheric signalling devices

It is well known that if the positive and negative poles of a voltaic cell or a voltaic battery be connected by a conducting wire, an electric current flows from the positive to the negative pole. If the battery is strong enough, that current may be made to work–that is to say, it may move a motor, it may ring bells, light incandescent lamps, or be turned into any form of energy required. If the conducting wire be cut and the circuit thus opened, the electrical current immediately ceases to flow and the work that was being done instantly stops. It is perfectly easy for any person standing by a battery to connect by a conductor the two poles and cause the current to flow. The problem to be solved for ætheric signalling is how at a distance of some 10 or 20 or more miles to close the electric current of a battery at will and to open it at will so as to cause work or stoppage of work. This is done in all systems of ætheric signalling which employ the Hertzian waves by means of "a resonator" or what is called a "coherer." Resonators are better adapted for scientific investigations by savants in laboratories than for rough and practical work in the field.

The system of coherers was originally formulated by Branley, Professor of Physics at the Institute of Paris, in 1890, who first discovered that electrical sparks caused undulations in the luminiferous ether, which acted upon a coherer. Since that time the system originally formulated by Branley has been improved upon and amended by Popoff, Bose, D'Arco, Oliver Lodge, Maskelyne and other electricians. It remained for Marconi to draw public attention to the possible commercial value of this system, but there seems nothing in Marconi's patents, which is new except the patent of a special form of coherer, which he employs. A coherer consists essentially of metallic springs or metallic filings. Experience has taught us that when the waves in ether–the Hertzian waves as they are termed–propagated by electric sparks, properly manipulated, even from a considerable distance, impinge on these metallic springs or metallic filings, they cause the springs or filings to cohere, and thus form a conductor for the passage of the electric current. The best coherer as yet brought to public notice appears to be the coherer invented and patented by Mr. Maskelyne. A simple experiment shows that if a coherer be placed in the circuit of a voltaic battery, it does not matter at how great a distance off the Hertzian waves impinge upon it, the electrical current immediately flows and is available to do work such as ringing a bell.

It cannot be too carefully borne in mind that the Hertzian waves do not ring the bell, nor does the coherer do any work. The work done is by the electric current of the local battery at the distant station conducted through the coherer. All that the coherer does is to close the circuit of the local battery. All that the Hertzian waves do is to cohere the coherer, and thus to cause the electric current at the distant station to flow and to do work. It is evident that so long as the Hertzian waves impinge upon the coherer the coherer will be cohered, and the electric current will pass. The next point, therefore, that is necessary to establish, is how to stop the circuit when we do not want the current to pass, or when we want work to be suspended.

Experience has shown that if a coherer is sharply tapped or shaken, the metallic particles fall asunder. There is after shaking, no longer a conduction of electricity through the coherer the electric current of the local battery consequently ceases, and work stops. One of the problems, therefore, of ætheric signalling is to devise a means by which the coherer can be decohered automatically after the receipt of an impulse. This is done by various methods in various systems; Marconi employs a tapper, Ducretet also employs a tapper, and most other systems do the same. In the receiver invented by Mr. Maskelyne, the coherer is not decohered by a tapper but by an armature.

To carry out this decoberence various subsidiary arrangements have to be introduced at the receiving station in the coherer circuit. It is hardly necessary to complicate a simple discussion of broad principles by details of subsidiary machinery, which at the best must be somewhat involved. Much of the success of Mr. Maskelyne's invention depends upon the perfection of the certainty and simplicity of the decohering device. The Maskelyne coherer is so simple that ordinary signalmen can use it and send messages and signals by it. Its action, too, is so certain that for many months the same coherer can be used without the necessity of alteration or regulation. At present it is necessary to have a tolerably high mast in order to secure communication, but it is believed that before long it will be possible to considerably reduce the height of the mast. It is also believed that before long by means of metallic telescopes it will be possible to direct the Hertzian waves, so that they will only impinge upon the particular target to which it may be desired to direct them, and there can be no doubt that experiments will suggest various improvements which will allow for the betterment of the system.

A system of ætheric signalling, which has been tried between Sheerness and Shoeburyness, across the mouth of the Thames, with the Maskelyne coherer, is found to answer very satisfactorily across that distance, which is over five miles. It is probable that great improvements will shortly be made in this system, but in the meantime it is quite sufficiently developed for all practical purposes up to probably 30 miles, and it is not often that, so far as a ship signalling is concerned, a distance of more than 12 miles is required. In some instances the distance across channels over which communication is to be established between islands and the mainland is not nearly so much as 12 miles.

It is apparently established that if a coherer be placed in the circuit of a local battery and by any means that coherer can be made to cohere at will from a distance, so as to allow the electrical current to flow, and can be similarly decohered from a distance, so as to stop the electrical current flowing through the local battery, that local battery will practically do any work that is required. The next question is as to the means by which the coherer can be cohered. This is effected by means of what is called the "Hozier transmitter," which emits sparks across the spark gap between two points. It is well known that if a coil of wire be wound round a piece of iron and a finer coil of wire wound a again around the first coil, an induced current of electricity from the battery with which the coil is connected is sent through the secondary coil at a very high tension. This fact is made use of and the current from these batteries passed through this coil comes out of secondary coil at a high tension and emits sparks across the spark gap. These sparks have the property of causing undulations in the ether, and these undulations are waves which are very similar to the waves of light or of radiant heat. These Hertzian waves, propagated by the oscillating spark across the spark gap, can, like the waves of light when they strike upon a plane surface, be either absorbed, or reflected, or transmitted. If a piece of ebonite, which is an insulator, be placed between the waves and the coherer, the waves will pass through the insulator. If, on the other band, a conductor, such as a piece of copper, be placed in the way, the waves are stopped, and you will see that the coherer has no effect. Ordinary ironwork will act in the same manner. If anybody would wish to study these Hertzian waves (and they form an interesting subject of study) they should refer to the work of Professor Hertz, translated into English for those who do not read German by Professor Jones, with a very valuable preface by Lord Kelvin.

PRACTICAL UTILITY OF ÆTHERIC SIGNALLING

It is not unnatural that those who advocate ætheric signalling may be asked to what extent ætheric signalling will be of practical value. It seems that some damage has been done to ætheric signalling by the exaggerated claims that have been made for its utility. It appears that where it is impossible to make use of a conducting wire, such as a land wire or electric cable, this system of ætheric signalling may be of immense use; for instance, in bridging over those channels where a cable cannot be laid, in communicating between ships and shore, or between shore and ships, where it is impossible that a ship can be connected by cable, and in war where time will not allow a cable to be laid, or when circumstances intervene, such as the presence of an enemy, which prevent cable connection. But it seems that ætheric signalling at present can only be of great practical use where conductors of electricity cannot be utilized. Of course, we do not know what developments science may produce, but at present it is difficult to perceive how this system can be superior to the system of conductive telegraphy. The subject, however, is one of great interest, and no doubt capable of great developments; and it is one well worth the study of those who have an inclination to scientific research.

It is evident that for the purposes of Lloyds, and for the purposes of the mercantile marine, any system by which vessels that require assistance, or aid from the shore, may be able to communicate with the shore is most advantageous. It is evident that a vessel, being a moving body, cannot be connected by telegraph cable with the shore. Therefore, when she is beyond the range of vision so that flag signalling cannot be utilized, it is much to be desired that some system of communication between ship and shore should be established. Flag signalling is always precarious. Manifestly, it cannot be utilized at night. In thick weather, in snow, and sometimes in rain, the signals are obscured and cannot be distinguished. For this reason Col. Hozier and those who have worked with him have done their best to develop some practical system of ætheric signalling which may be the means of every year saving from the perils of the seas thousands of pounds' worth of property and hundreds of human lives

About the Author

Sir Henry Montague Hozier (1838-1907), was a British army officer and pioneer in military intelligence. Like his son-in-law, Winston S. Churchill, Hozier was also a military correspondent: he covered the Austrian-Prussian War for The Times and wrote the official history of the 1867-68 Abyssinian Expedition. Hozier left the army to become the Secretary of Lloyd's of London, in 1874 (a position he held until 1906). One of his most significant innovations was setting up wireless stations to monitor sea traffic, a system which in 1911 put Lloyd's in touch with First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill. Shipping information from Lloyd's network was routinely passed to the Admiralty, where it played a vital intelligence role during the First World War.

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This article originally appeared in the March 1901 issue of the Journal of the Military Service Institution (vol. XXVIII, No. 110 pp. 256-264) as a reprint from the Army and Navy Gazette.

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Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896)

To invent an airplane is nothing. To build one is something. But to fly is everything. ~Otto Lilienthal

The noted aviation historian, Sir Charles Gibbs-Smith, divided flyer inventors into two categories. The first he termed "Chauffeurs of the Air," because "they act as though flying is like driving a carriage." Maxim is perhaps the best example of this large category. In contrast, Gibbs-Smith said that "Airmen" are those who understand that the fluid medium of air makes flight a quite different proposition than land/water-based maneuvering.

Gibbs-Smith continued that the chauffeur-type tends to be concerned with obtaining sufficient propulsion, without worrying overmuch about factors like lift or control. While the airmen often work on gliders before tackling the problem of powered, dynamic-lift flight. Of all of the aviation pioneers who fall into Gibbs-Smith's prototypical "Airman" category, the German Otto Lilienthal best exemplifies those characteristics.

Before 1881, attempts to develop dynamic-lift flyers were occasional and sporadic. Lilienthal changed all that. His efforts broke the 'respectability barrier' that haunted serious efforts to develop dynamic-lift flyers. During the late 1880s, Lilienthal developed eighteen different models of gliders. His efforts received worldwide publicity, and his successes lent others the courage to follow in his footsteps.

Perhaps Lilienthal's most influential work is his paper Practical Experiments for the Development of Human Flight. This seminal work continued to influence dynamic-lift research for years. Before Lilienthal, building a heavier-than-air, dynamic-lift craft was widely considered to be the province of dreamers and fools; after it seemed possible to fly without the aid of liftwood or hydrogen.

Scientist/Inventor (Green NPC)
Att.		Skills
Str:	2	Fisticuffs: 1, Throwing: 1
Agl:	3	Stealth: 2, Mechanics: 2 (machinist)
End:	2	Wilderness Travel: 1
Int:	6	Observation: 6, Science: 5 (physics), Engineering 3 (naval engineering)
Chr:	4	Eloquence: 3, Linguistics 2 (English)
Soc:	4	Riding: 3 (horse), Piloting: 2 (aerial flyers)
Motives: Driven, Knowledge, Loyal
Appearance: Lilienthal is a distinguished man, slightly above average in both build and looks. He is well-spoken and is able to persuade people to his point of view, due in large part to his intelligence and command of the subject matter. His primary language is German, but he speaks English as well. His passion is aeronautics, and in particular, that dynamic-lift flight models are superior to static-lift (hydrogen and liftwood) models. His research has been focused on replicating flight models based on the study of bird flight.